National Security policy making in the context of the War on Terror: a look at the Ghana-US military corporation agreement.
Keywords:
National Security policy, Risk, Ghana, US, Defence Cooperation Agreement, War on Terror
Abstract
This article examines the Defence Cooperation Agreement between Ghana and the United States of America within the context of Ghana’s National security policy making framework – a sub-set of foreign policy – a country’s policies that covers all official relations between two or more countries, and the US War on Terror. Following the 9/11 attacks on the US, – a policy that subscribes to militarisation and securitisation of development. Based on the concept of risk which has come to characterise security policy making in the post 9/11 era, the paper argues that the pact between Ghana and the Unites States flouts the formers own defence policy and mechanisms for securing its territorial integrity. More so, the agreement does not portend well for the Ghana’s contribution to the realisation of a peaceful sub-region.
References
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———. 2005. ‘Blair’s Africa: The Politics of Securitization and Fear’. Alternatives 30 (1): 55–80.
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Ball, Nicole. 2010. ‘The Evolution of the Security Sector Reform Agenda’. The Future of Security Sector Reform 29.
Beck, Ulrich. 2009. World at Risk. Polity.
———. 2014. ‘Risk Society’. Essential Concepts of Global Environmental Governance. Routledge, Abingdon, UK, 178–79.
Bluwey, G. K. 2002. ‘Foreign Policy and Decision-Making Process in Ghana: Issues, Gound Rules and Actors’. University of Ghana, Legon Centre for International Affairs, Eds. Ghana’s Foreign Policy Options. Accra: Legon Centre for International Affairs, University of Ghana, 43–53.
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Brzoska, Michael. 2003. Development Donors and the Concept of Security Sector Reform. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control Armed Forces Geneva, Switzerland.
Buzan, Barry, Ole Wæver, Ole Wæver, and Jaap De Wilde. 1998. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Campbell, Harold G. 2005. ‘Logic Models in Support of Homeland Security Strategy Development’. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management 2 (2).
Campbell, Horace. 2008. ‘Remilitarisation of African Societies: Analysis of the Planning behind Proposed US Africa Command’. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies 3 (1): 6–34.
———. 2013. Nato’s Failure in Libya: Lessons for Africa. Africa Inst of South Africa.
Campbell, Horace G. 2000. The US Security Doctrine and the Africa Crisis Response Initiative. Vol. 62. Africa Institute of South Africa.
———. 2017. ‘The United States and Security in Africa: The Impact of the Military Management of the International System’. Africa Development 42 (3): 45–71.
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———. 2018. Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 7, Poverty Trends in Ghana, 2005–2017. Ghana Statistical Service Accra.
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———. 2018b. ‘“I Am Sad for Akufo-Addo; He Didn’t Read Defence Deal” - Kpessa-Whyte’. 6 April 2018. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/I-am-sad-for-Akufo-Addo-he-didn-t-read-defence-deal-Kpessa-Whyte-640861
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Government of Ghana. 1996. Security and Intelligence Agencies Act. Act 526.
———. n.d. ‘DRAFT NATIONAL COUNTER-TERRORISM FRAMEWORK’.
Gutelius, David. 2007. ‘Islam in Northern Mali and the War on Terror’. Journal of Contemporary African Studies 25 (1): 59–76.
Hirnissa, M.T., Muzafar Shah Habibullah, and A.H. Baharom. 2009. ‘Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in Asean-5 Countries’. Journal of Sustainable Development 2 (2): p192. https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v2n2p192.
Huntington, S. P. 1967. ‘The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, Harvard University)’.
Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research. 2013. Ghana Social Development Outlook 2012. Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research Legon.
Jayasuriya, K. 2004. ‘9/11 and the New ‘‘Antipolitics’. Of ‘“Security”’’, Social Science Research Council. Www. Ssrc. Org/Sept11/Essays/Jayasuriya. Htm.
Jayasuriya, Kanishka. 2002. ‘September 11, Security and the New Post Liberal Politics of Fear’. In . The New Press.
———. 2006. Reconstituting the Global Liberal Order: Legitimacy, Regulation and Security. Routledge.
Kalu, Kelechi, and Laura Joseph. 2009. ‘West Africa and the US’War on Terror’’.
Kaplan, Robert D. 1994. ‘The Coming Anarchy’. Atlantic Monthly 273 (2): 44–76.
Keenan, Jeremy. 2004. ‘Terror in the Sahara: The Implications of US Imperialism for North & West Africa’. Review of African Political Economy 31 (101): 475–96.
Keenan, Jeremy H. 2010. ‘Africa Unsecured? The Role of the Global War on Terror (GWOT) in Securing US Imperial Interests in Africa’. Critical Studies on Terrorism 3 (1): 27–47.
Kieh, George Klay, and Kelechi Kalu. 2013. West Africa and the US War on Terror. Routledge.
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Leffler, Melvyn P. 1990. ‘National Security’. The Journal of American History 77 (1): 143–52.
McConnon, Eamonn. 2019. ‘Mapping the Security-Development Nexus’. In Risk and the Security-Development Nexus, 51–77. Springer.
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Pugh, Jonathan, Clive Gabay, and Alison J. Williams. 2013. ‘Beyond the Securitisation of Development: The Limits of Intervention, Developmentisation of Security and Repositioning of Purpose in the UK Coalition Government’s Policy Agenda’. Geoforum 44: 193–201.
Reith, Gerda. 2004. ‘Uncertain Times: The Notion of ‘Risk’and the Development of Modernity’. Time & Society 13 (2–3): 383–402.
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Ricks, Thomas. 2006. Fiasco: The American Military Intervention in Iraq, 2003 to 2005. New York: Hudson Press.
Sarkesian, Sam Charles, John Allen Williams, and Stephen J. Cimbala. 2008. US National Security: Policymakers, Processes, and Politics. Lynne Rienner Publishers Boulder.
Selchow, Sabine. 2014. ‘Security Policy and (Global) Risk (s)’. Handbook of Global Security Policy. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 68–84.
Shimeles, Abebe, and Tiguene Nabassaga. 2018. ‘Why Is Inequality High in Africa?’ Journal of African Economies 27 (1): 108–26.
SIPRI Yearbook. 2020. ‘Summary’. 2020, 28.
Smith, Chris. 2001. ‘Security-Sector Reform: Development Breakthrough or Institutional Engineering?’ Conflict, Security & Development 1 (01): 5–20.
Spear, Joanna. 2016. ‘The Militarization of United States Foreign Aid’. In The Securitization of Foreign Aid, 18–41. Springer.
Stålenheim, Petter, Catalina Perdomo, and Elisabeth Sköns. 2007. ‘SIPRI Yearbook 2008: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security’. In Military Expenditure, 32.
Taylor, Ian. 2010. The International Relations of Sub-Saharan Africa. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
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Williams, Michael J. 2008. ‘(In) Security Studies, Reflexive Modernization and the Risk Society’. Cooperation and Conflict 43 (1): 57–79.
Wulf, Herbert. 2004. ‘Security Sector Reform in Developing and Transitional Countries’. Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management 5.
Abrahamsen, Rita. 2004. ‘A Breeding Ground for Terrorists? Africa & Britain’s “War on Terrorism”’. Review of African Political Economy 31 (102): 677–84.
———. 2005. ‘Blair’s Africa: The Politics of Securitization and Fear’. Alternatives 30 (1): 55–80.
Akufo-Addo, Nana Addo Dankwa. 2018. ‘ADDRESS TO THE NATION, BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC, NANA ADDO DANKWA AKUFO-ADDO, ON THE “US-GHANA MILITARY CO-OPERATION AGREEMENT’. Ghanaweb. 6 April 2018. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Full-Speech-Akufo-Addo-s-address-on-the-US-Ghana-Military-Co-operation-Agreement-640739.
Akweiteh, Godwin. 2018. ‘Parliament Approves Controversial US “Military Base” Deal’. Online. Citifmonline. 23 March 2018. http://citifmonline.com/2018/03/parliament-approves-controversial-us-military-base-deal/.
Anderson, James. 2006. Public Policymaking: An Introduction. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Aning, Kwesi. 2013. ‘Africa and Transnational Organized Crime: Financing Insecurity and Narco-Terrorism’. In Handbook of Africa’s International Relations, 272–81. Routledge.
Attuquayefio, Philip K. 2012. ‘Co-Opting Human Security and Deductions for Security Policy-Making in Ghana’. Ghana Journal of Development Studies 9 (1): 88–100.
Ball, Nicole. 2010. ‘The Evolution of the Security Sector Reform Agenda’. The Future of Security Sector Reform 29.
Beck, Ulrich. 2009. World at Risk. Polity.
———. 2014. ‘Risk Society’. Essential Concepts of Global Environmental Governance. Routledge, Abingdon, UK, 178–79.
Bluwey, G. K. 2002. ‘Foreign Policy and Decision-Making Process in Ghana: Issues, Gound Rules and Actors’. University of Ghana, Legon Centre for International Affairs, Eds. Ghana’s Foreign Policy Options. Accra: Legon Centre for International Affairs, University of Ghana, 43–53.
Bluwey, Gilbert Keith. 1977. ‘CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN GHANA’S FOREIGN POLICY IN THE POST-NKRUMAH ERA (1966-1975).’
Brzoska, Michael. 2003. Development Donors and the Concept of Security Sector Reform. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control Armed Forces Geneva, Switzerland.
Buzan, Barry, Ole Wæver, Ole Wæver, and Jaap De Wilde. 1998. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Campbell, Harold G. 2005. ‘Logic Models in Support of Homeland Security Strategy Development’. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management 2 (2).
Campbell, Horace. 2008. ‘Remilitarisation of African Societies: Analysis of the Planning behind Proposed US Africa Command’. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies 3 (1): 6–34.
———. 2013. Nato’s Failure in Libya: Lessons for Africa. Africa Inst of South Africa.
Campbell, Horace G. 2000. The US Security Doctrine and the Africa Crisis Response Initiative. Vol. 62. Africa Institute of South Africa.
———. 2017. ‘The United States and Security in Africa: The Impact of the Military Management of the International System’. Africa Development 42 (3): 45–71.
Chandler, David. 2006. ‘The Other-Regarding Ethics of the “Empire in Denial”’. In Rethinking Ethical Foreign Policy, 173–95. Routledge.
Chandler, David C. 2006. Empire in Denial: The Politics of State-Building. Pluto.
Conceiçao, P. 2019. ‘Beyond Income, beyond Averages, beyond Today: Inequalities in Human Development in the 21st Century. Human Development Report 2019’. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Dal Bó, Pedro. 2007. ‘Social Norms, Cooperation and Inequality’. Economic Theory 30 (1): 89–105.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 2018. ‘Defense Cooperation Agreement Between the United States of America and Ghana’. DEPARTMENT OF STATE. https://public-preview-server.prod.cstreetsandbox.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/18-531-Ghana-Defense-Status-of-Forces.pdf.
Department of State. 2018. ‘Integrated Country Strategy - Ghana’. DEPARTMENT OF STATE. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ICS_Ghana_UNCLASS_508.pdf.
Garland, David. 2003. ‘The Rise of Risk’. Risk and Morality, 48–86.
Ghana Statistical Service. 2013. 2010 Population and Housing Census: National Analytical Report. Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.
———. 2018. Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 7, Poverty Trends in Ghana, 2005–2017. Ghana Statistical Service Accra.
Ghanaweb. 2018a. ‘One-Sided Parliament Approves Ghana-US Military Deal’. News Article. One-Sided Parliament Approves Ghana-US Military Deal. 24 March 2018. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/One-sided-Parliament-approves-Ghana-US-Military-deal-637375
———. 2018b. ‘“I Am Sad for Akufo-Addo; He Didn’t Read Defence Deal” - Kpessa-Whyte’. 6 April 2018. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/I-am-sad-for-Akufo-Addo-he-didn-t-read-defence-deal-Kpessa-Whyte-640861
———. 2018c. ‘The “True” Reasons US Wants a Military Deal with Ghana – LECIA Lecturer Reveals’. 14 April 2018. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/The-true-reasons-US-wants-a-military-deal-with-Ghana-LECIA-lecturer-reveals-643064
———. 2020. ‘DOSSIER: US Military Base in Ghana’. 2020. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/dossier.php?ID=1064
Giddens, Anthony. 1991. Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Stanford university press.
Gortney, William E. 2010. ‘Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms’. Joint Chiefs Of Staff Washington.
Government of Ghana. 1996. Security and Intelligence Agencies Act. Act 526.
———. n.d. ‘DRAFT NATIONAL COUNTER-TERRORISM FRAMEWORK’.
Gutelius, David. 2007. ‘Islam in Northern Mali and the War on Terror’. Journal of Contemporary African Studies 25 (1): 59–76.
Hirnissa, M.T., Muzafar Shah Habibullah, and A.H. Baharom. 2009. ‘Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in Asean-5 Countries’. Journal of Sustainable Development 2 (2): p192. https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v2n2p192.
Huntington, S. P. 1967. ‘The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, Harvard University)’.
Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research. 2013. Ghana Social Development Outlook 2012. Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research Legon.
Jayasuriya, K. 2004. ‘9/11 and the New ‘‘Antipolitics’. Of ‘“Security”’’, Social Science Research Council. Www. Ssrc. Org/Sept11/Essays/Jayasuriya. Htm.
Jayasuriya, Kanishka. 2002. ‘September 11, Security and the New Post Liberal Politics of Fear’. In . The New Press.
———. 2006. Reconstituting the Global Liberal Order: Legitimacy, Regulation and Security. Routledge.
Kalu, Kelechi, and Laura Joseph. 2009. ‘West Africa and the US’War on Terror’’.
Kaplan, Robert D. 1994. ‘The Coming Anarchy’. Atlantic Monthly 273 (2): 44–76.
Keenan, Jeremy. 2004. ‘Terror in the Sahara: The Implications of US Imperialism for North & West Africa’. Review of African Political Economy 31 (101): 475–96.
Keenan, Jeremy H. 2010. ‘Africa Unsecured? The Role of the Global War on Terror (GWOT) in Securing US Imperial Interests in Africa’. Critical Studies on Terrorism 3 (1): 27–47.
Kieh, George Klay, and Kelechi Kalu. 2013. West Africa and the US War on Terror. Routledge.
Kpessa, Michael W., and Raymond A. Atuguba. 2013. ‘Grounding with the People: Participatory Policy Making in the Context of Constitution Review in Ghana’. J. Pol. & L. 6: 99.
Kraft, M. E., and S. R. Furlong. 2007. Public Policies: Politics, Analysis, and Alternatives. London, Washington, DC: Eurospan.
Leffler, Melvyn P. 1990. ‘National Security’. The Journal of American History 77 (1): 143–52.
McConnon, Eamonn. 2019. ‘Mapping the Security-Development Nexus’. In Risk and the Security-Development Nexus, 51–77. Springer.
McRae, Rob. 2001. ‘Human Security in a Globalized World’. Human Security and the New Diplomacy, 14–27.
Miles, William FS. 2012. ‘Deploying Development to Counter Terrorism: Post-9/11 Transformation of US Foreign Aid to Africa’. African Studies Review, 27–60.
Ministry of Defence. n.d. ‘Ghana National Defence Policy’.
Neocleous, Mark. 2007. ‘Security, Liberty and the Myth of Balance: Towards a Critique of Security Politics’. Contemporary Political Theory 6 (2): 131–49.
Nkrumah, Kwame. 1958. ‘African Prospect’. Foreign Aff. 37: 45.
Nyavor, George. 2018. ‘Status of Ghana-U.S. Military Deal Uncertain; Legislators Fail to Reach Consensus’. Nsempii, 23 March 2018, sec. General. https://www.nsempii.com/status-of-ghana-u-s-military-deal-uncertain-legislators-fail-to-reach-consensus/.
Obi, Cyril I. 2006. ‘Terrorism in West Africa: Real, Emerging or Imagined Threats?’ African Security Studies 15 (3): 87–101.
Odusola, Ayodele F., Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Haroon Bhorat, and Pedro Conceição. 2017. Income Inequality Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa: Divergence, Determinants and Consequences. United Nations Development Programme, Regional Bureau for Africa.
Pal, Leslie. 2010. Beyond Policy Analysis Public Issue Management in Turbulent Times. Fourth. Canada.
Parliament of Ghana. 2018. ‘Parliament of Debates’. Official Report 36. Votes of Proceedings and the Official Report. Accra: Parliament of Ghana. https://www.parliament.gh/docs?type=HS&P=104.
Poku, Nana K., Neil Renwick, and Joao Gomes Porto. 2007. ‘Human Security and Development in Africa’. International Affairs 83 (6): 1155–70.
Pugh, Jonathan, Clive Gabay, and Alison J. Williams. 2013. ‘Beyond the Securitisation of Development: The Limits of Intervention, Developmentisation of Security and Repositioning of Purpose in the UK Coalition Government’s Policy Agenda’. Geoforum 44: 193–201.
Reith, Gerda. 2004. ‘Uncertain Times: The Notion of ‘Risk’and the Development of Modernity’. Time & Society 13 (2–3): 383–402.
Republic of Ghana. 1992. The 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, 1992. Tema: Ghana Publishing Corporation. Republic of Ghana.
Ricks, Thomas. 2006. Fiasco: The American Military Intervention in Iraq, 2003 to 2005. New York: Hudson Press.
Sarkesian, Sam Charles, John Allen Williams, and Stephen J. Cimbala. 2008. US National Security: Policymakers, Processes, and Politics. Lynne Rienner Publishers Boulder.
Selchow, Sabine. 2014. ‘Security Policy and (Global) Risk (s)’. Handbook of Global Security Policy. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 68–84.
Shimeles, Abebe, and Tiguene Nabassaga. 2018. ‘Why Is Inequality High in Africa?’ Journal of African Economies 27 (1): 108–26.
SIPRI Yearbook. 2020. ‘Summary’. 2020, 28.
Smith, Chris. 2001. ‘Security-Sector Reform: Development Breakthrough or Institutional Engineering?’ Conflict, Security & Development 1 (01): 5–20.
Spear, Joanna. 2016. ‘The Militarization of United States Foreign Aid’. In The Securitization of Foreign Aid, 18–41. Springer.
Stålenheim, Petter, Catalina Perdomo, and Elisabeth Sköns. 2007. ‘SIPRI Yearbook 2008: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security’. In Military Expenditure, 32.
Taylor, Ian. 2010. The International Relations of Sub-Saharan Africa. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
Torto, Obodai. 2020. ‘Analysis of Community-Driven Human Security Interventions in Africa: The Case of the Northern Region of Ghana’. In The Palgrave Handbook of African Political Economy, 413–32. Springer.
US Department of State. 2013. ‘African Contingency Operations Training and Assistance (ACOTA) Program’. U.S. Department of State. 2013. //2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2013/02/203841.htm.
US Embassy Ghana. n.d. ‘Office of Security Cooperation (OSC) | U.S. Embassy in Ghana’. Accessed 7 October 2020. https://gh.usembassy.gov/embassy/accra/sections-offices/office-security-cooperation-osc/.
Williams, Michael J. 2008. ‘(In) Security Studies, Reflexive Modernization and the Risk Society’. Cooperation and Conflict 43 (1): 57–79.
Wulf, Herbert. 2004. ‘Security Sector Reform in Developing and Transitional Countries’. Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management 5.
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2021-12-21
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